• • • Hafnium is a with symbol Hf and 72. A, silvery gray,, hafnium chemically resembles and is found in many zirconium. Its existence was in 1869, though it was not identified until 1923, by Coster and Hevesy, making it the last element to be discovered. Hafnium is named after Hafnia, the name for, where it was discovered. Hafnium is used in filaments and electrodes. Some fabrication processes use its oxide for at 45 nm and smaller feature lengths. Some used for special applications contain hafnium in combination with,,.

Hafnium - WikiVisually. The chemical properties of hafnium and zirconium are nearly identical, which makes the two difficult to separate. ASTM Manual on Zirconium and Hafnium. Service Online. When zirconium is chosen for an application, the high cost and expected serviceability require the. Flowserve produces two grades of zirconium castings that conform to ASTM. Specification B752, Grades 702C and 705C.

Hafnium's large cross-section makes it a good material for absorption in in, but at the same time requires that it be removed from the neutron-transparent corrosion-resistant used in. Pieces of Hafnium Hafnium is a shiny, silvery, that is -resistant and chemically similar to zirconium (due to its having the same number of, being in the same group, but also to; the expected expansion of atomic radii from period 5 to 6 is almost exactly cancelled out by the ). The physical properties of hafnium metal samples are markedly affected by zirconium impurities, especially the nuclear properties, as these two elements are among the most difficult to separate because of their chemical similarity. A notable physical difference between these metals is their, with zirconium having about one-half the density of hafnium. The most notable properties of hafnium are its high thermal and that the nuclei of several different hafnium isotopes readily absorb two or more apiece. In contrast with this, zirconium is practically transparent to thermal neutrons, and it is commonly used for the metal components of nuclear reactors – especially the cladding of their. Chemical characteristics [ ].

Hafnium dioxide Hafnium reacts in air to form a that inhibits further. The metal is not readily attacked by acids but can be oxidized with or it can be burnt in air. Like its sister metal zirconium, finely divided hafnium can ignite spontaneously in air, producing an effect similar to that obtained in. The metal is resistant to concentrated. The chemistry of hafnium and zirconium is so similar that the two cannot be separated on the basis of differing chemical reactions.

The melting points and boiling points of the compounds and the in solvents are the major differences in the chemistry of these twin elements. Isotopes [ ].

Zircon crystal (2×2 cm) from Tocantins, Hafnium is estimated to make up about 5.8 of the 's upper by mass. It does not exist as a free element on Earth, but is found combined in with zirconium in natural compounds such as, ZrSiO 4, which usually has about 1–4% of the Zr replaced by Hf. Rarely, the Hf/Zr ratio increases during crystallization to give the isostructural mineral (Hf,Zr)SiO 4, with atomic Hf >Zr. An old (obsolete) name for a variety of zircon containing unusually high Hf content is alvite. A major source of zircon (and hence hafnium) ores is,, particularly in and, and intrusions, particularly the Crown Polymetallic Deposit at, Western Australia. A potential source of hafnium is trachyte tuffs containing rare zircon-hafnium silicates or armstrongite, at in, Australia. Hafnium reserves have been infamously estimated to last under 10 years by one source if the world population increases and demand grows.

In reality, since hafnium occurs with zirconium, hafnium can always be a byproduct of zirconium extraction to the extent that the low demand requires. Production [ ]. Melted tip of a hafnium consumable electrode used in an ebeam remelting furnace, a 1 cm cube, and an oxided hafnium ebeam remelted ingot (left to right) The of the titanium ores and yield most of the mined zirconium, and therefore also most of the hafnium. Zirconium is a good nuclear fuel-rod cladding metal, with the desirable properties of a very low neutron capture cross-section and good chemical stability at high temperatures. However, because of hafnium's neutron-absorbing properties, hafnium impurities in zirconium would cause it to be far less useful for nuclear-reactor applications. Thus, a nearly complete separation of zirconium and hafnium is necessary for their use in nuclear power.

The production of hafnium-free zirconium is the main source for hafnium. Hafnium oxidized ingots which exhibit effects. The chemical properties of hafnium and zirconium are nearly identical, which makes the two difficult to separate. The methods first used — of ammonium fluoride salts or the fractionated distillation of the chloride — have not proven suitable for an industrial-scale production. After zirconium was chosen as material for nuclear reactor programs in the 1940s, a separation method had to be developed. Liquid-liquid extraction processes with a wide variety of solvents were developed and are still used for the production of hafnium.

About half of all hafnium metal manufactured is produced as a by-product of zirconium refinement. The end product of the separation is hafnium(IV) chloride.

The purified hafnium(IV) chloride is converted to the metal by reduction with or, as in the. HfCl 4 + 2 Mg (1100 °C) → 2 MgCl 2 + Hf Further purification is effected by a developed by: In a closed vessel, hafnium reacts with at temperatures of 500 °C, forming; at a tungsten filament of 1700 °C the reverse reaction happens, and the iodine and hafnium are set free. The hafnium forms a solid coating at the tungsten filament, and the iodine can react with additional hafnium, resulting in a steady turn over. Hf + 2 I 2 (500 °C) → HfI 4 HfI 4 (1700 °C) → Hf + 2 I 2 Chemical compounds [ ] Due to the the of hafnium(IV) (0.78 angstroms) is almost the same as that of (IV) (0.79 ). Consequently, compounds of hafnium(IV) and zirconium(IV) have very similar chemical and physical properties. Hafnium and zirconium tend to occur together in nature and the similarity of their ionic radii makes their chemical separation rather difficult.

Hafnium tends to form in the oxidation state of +4. React with it to form hafnium tetrahalides. At higher temperatures, hafnium reacts with,,,,, and. Some compounds of hafnium in lower oxidation states are known.

And hafnium(IV) iodide have some applications in the production and purification of hafnium metal. They are volatile solids with polymeric structures. These tetrachlorides are precursors to various such as hafnocene dichloride and tetrabenzylhafnium. The white (HfO 2), with a melting point of 2812 °C and a boiling point of roughly 5100 °C, is very similar to, but slightly more basic. Is the most known, with a melting point over 3890 °C, and hafnium nitride is the most refractory of all known metal nitrides, with a melting point of 3310 °C. This has led to proposals that hafnium or its carbides might be useful as construction materials that are subjected to very high temperatures.

The mixed carbide ( Ta 4HfC 5) possesses the highest melting point of any currently known compound, 4215 °C. Sora No Otoshimono Forte Download Legendado. Recent supercomputer simulations suggest a hafnium alloy with a melting point of 4400 K. Photographic recording of the characteristic X-ray emission lines of some elements In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements, in 1869, had implicitly of a heavier analog of titanium and zirconium. At the time of his formulation in 1871, Mendeleev believed that the elements were ordered by their and placed (element 57) in the spot below zirconium. The exact placement of the elements and the location of missing elements was done by determining the specific weight of the elements and comparing the chemical and physical properties. The done by in 1914 showed a direct dependency between and. This led to the nuclear charge, or of an element, being used to ascertain its place within the periodic table.

With this method, Moseley determined the number of and showed the gaps in the atomic number sequence at numbers 43, 61, 72, and 75. The discovery of the gaps led to an extensive search for the missing elements. In 1914, several people claimed the discovery after Henry Moseley predicted the gap in the periodic table for the then-undiscovered element 72. Asserted that he found element 72 in the in 1907 and published his results on celtium in 1911. Neither the spectra nor the chemical behavior he claimed matched with the element found later, and therefore his claim was turned down after a long-standing controversy. The controversy was partly because the chemists favored the chemical techniques which led to the discovery of celtium, while the physicists relied on the use of the new X-ray spectroscopy method that proved that the substances discovered by Urbain did not contain element 72. By early 1923, several physicists and chemists such as and Charles R.

Bury suggested that element 72 should resemble zirconium and therefore was not part of the rare earth elements group. These suggestions were based on Bohr's theories of the atom, the X-ray spectroscopy of Moseley, and the chemical arguments of. Encouraged by these suggestions and by the reappearance in 1922 of Urbain's claims that element 72 was a rare earth element discovered in 1911, and were motivated to search for the new element in zirconium ores. Hafnium was discovered by the two in 1923 in Copenhagen, Denmark, validating the original 1869 prediction of Mendeleev. It was ultimately found in in Norway through X-ray spectroscopy analysis. The place where the discovery took place led to the element being named for the Latin name for 'Copenhagen', Hafnia, the home town of. Today, the of the uses in its a stylized image of the hafnium atom.

Hafnium was separated from zirconium through repeated recrystallization of the double or fluorides by and von Hevesey. And were the first to prepare metallic hafnium by passing hafnium tetraiodide vapor over a heated filament in 1924. This process for differential purification of zirconium and hafnium is still in use today. In 1923, four predicted elements were still missing from the periodic table: 43 () and 61 () are radioactive elements and are only present in trace amounts in the environment, thus making elements 75 () and 72 (hafnium) the last two unknown non-radioactive elements.

Since rhenium was discovered in 1908, hafnium was the last element with stable isotopes to be discovered. Applications [ ] Several details contribute to the fact that there are only a few technical uses for hafnium: First, the close similarity between hafnium and zirconium makes it possible to use zirconium for most of the applications; second, hafnium was first available as pure metal after the use in the nuclear industry for hafnium-free zirconium in the late 1950s. Furthermore, the low abundance and difficult separation techniques necessary make it a scarce commodity. Most of the hafnium produced is used in the production of for. Nuclear reactors [ ] The nuclei of several hafnium isotopes can each absorb multiple neutrons. This makes hafnium a good material for use in the control rods for nuclear reactors.

Its neutron-capture cross-section is about 600 times that of zirconium. (Other elements that are good neutron-absorbers for control rods are and.) Excellent mechanical properties and exceptional corrosion-resistance properties allow its use in the harsh environment of. The German research reactor uses hafnium as a neutron absorber. It is also common in military reactors, particularity in US naval reactors, but seldom found in civilian ones, the first core of the (a conversion of a naval reactor) being a notable exception. Hafnium-containing rocket nozzle of the Apollo Lunar Module in the lower right corner Hafnium is used in with,,,, and other metals. An alloy used for thruster nozzles, for example the main engine of the, is C103 which consists of 89% niobium, 10% hafnium and 1% titanium.

Small additions of hafnium increase the adherence of protective oxide scales on nickel-based alloys. It improves thereby the resistance especially under cyclic temperature conditions that tend to break oxide scales by inducing thermal stresses between the bulk material and the oxide layer. Microprocessors [ ] Hafnium-based compounds are employed in insulators in the 45 nm generation of from, and others.

Hafnium oxide-based compounds are practical, allowing reduction of the gate leakage current which improves performance at such scales. Isotope geochemistry [ ] Isotopes of hafnium and (along with ) are also used in and applications, in. It is often used as a tracer of isotopic evolution of through time. This is because 176Lu decays to 176Hf with a of approximately 37 billion years. In most geologic materials, is the dominant host of hafnium (>10,000 ppm) and is often the focus of hafnium studies in. Hafnium is readily substituted into the zircon, and is therefore very resistant to hafnium mobility and contamination.

Zircon also has an extremely low Lu/Hf ratio, making any correction for initial lutetium minimal. Although the Lu/Hf system can be used to calculate a ', i.e. The time at which it was derived from a given isotopic reservoir such as the, these 'ages' do not carry the same geologic significance as do other geochronological techniques as the results often yield isotopic mixtures and thus provide an average age of the material from which it was derived. Is another mineral that contains appreciable amounts of hafnium to act as a geochronometer. The high and variable Lu/Hf ratios found in garnet make it useful for dating events. Other uses [ ] Due to its heat resistance and its affinity to oxygen and nitrogen, hafnium is a good scavenger for oxygen and nitrogen in gas-filled and.

Hafnium is also used as the electrode in because of its ability to shed electrons into air. The high energy content of 178m2Hf was the concern of a -funded program in the US. This program determined that the possibility of using a of hafnium (the above-mentioned 178m2Hf) to construct high-yield weapons with X-ray triggering mechanisms—an application of —was infeasible because of its expense. Precautions [ ] Care needs to be taken when hafnium because it is —fine particles can spontaneously combust when exposed to air. Compounds that contain this metal are rarely encountered by most people. The pure metal is not considered toxic, but hafnium compounds should be handled as if they were toxic because the ionic forms of metals are normally at greatest risk for toxicity, and limited animal testing has been done for hafnium compounds. People can be exposed to hafnium in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin contact, and eye contact.

The (OSHA) has set the legal limit () for exposure to hafnium and hafnium compounds in the workplace as TWA 0.5 mg/m 3 over an 8-hour workday. The (NIOSH) has set the same (REL). At levels of 50 mg/m 3, hafnium is. See also [ ].

• • • Rhodium is a with symbol Rh and 45. It is a rare, silvery-white, hard, and chemically. It is a and a member of the. It has only one naturally occurring, 103Rh.

Naturally occurring rhodium is usually found as the free metal, alloyed with similar metals, and rarely as a chemical compound in minerals such as and. It is one of the rarest and most valuable. Rhodium is found in platinum or nickel ores together with the other members of the metals. It was in 1803 by in one such ore, and named for the rose color of one of its chlorine compounds, produced after it reacted with the powerful acid mixture.

The element's major use (approximately 80% of world rhodium production) is as one of the in the in automobiles. Because rhodium metal is inert against corrosion and most aggressive chemicals, and because of its rarity, rhodium is usually with or and applied in high-temperature and corrosion-resistive coatings. Is often plated with a thin rhodium layer to improve its appearance while is often rhodium-plated for tarnish resistance. Rhodium detectors are used in to measure the. Rhodium ( rhodon (ῥόδον) meaning 'rose') was in 1803 by, soon after his discovery of.

He used crude ore presumably obtained from. His procedure involved dissolving the ore in and neutralizing the acid with (NaOH).

He then precipitated the platinum as by adding ( NH 4Cl). Most other metals like,, and rhodium were precipitated with. Diluted dissolved all but palladium and rhodium.

Of these, palladium dissolved in but rhodium did not, and the rhodium was precipitated by the addition of as Na 3[RhCl 6] nH 2O. After being washed with ethanol, the rose-red precipitate was reacted with zinc, which the rhodium in the ionic compound and thereby released the rhodium as free metal. After the discovery, the rare element had only minor applications; for example, by the turn of the century, rhodium-containing thermocouples were used to measure temperatures up to 1800 °C.

The first major application was electroplating for decorative uses and as corrosion-resistant coating. The introduction of the three-way by in 1976 increased the demand for rhodium. The previous catalytic converters used platinum or palladium, while the three-way catalytic converter used rhodium to reduce the amount of in the exhaust. Characteristics [ ] 27 cobalt 2, 8, 15, 2 45 rhodium 2, 8, 18, 16, 1 77 iridium 2, 8, 18, 32, 15, 2 109 meitnerium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 15, 2 (predicted) Rhodium is a hard, silvery, durable metal that has a high. Rhodium metal does not normally form an, even when heated.

Is absorbed from the only at the of rhodium, but is released on solidification. Rhodium has both a higher melting point and lower than. It is not attacked by most: it is completely insoluble in and dissolves slightly in. Chemical properties [ ]. Wilkinson's catalyst Rhodium belongs to of the periodic table, but the configuration of electrons in the outermost shells is atypical for the group. This anomaly is also observed in the neighboring elements, (41), (44), and (46).

Oxidation states of rhodium +0 Rh 4(CO) 12 +1 RhCl(PH 3) 2 +2 Rh 2(O 2CCH 3) 4 +3 RhCl 3, Rh 2O 3 +4 RhF 4, RhO 2 +5 RhF 5, Sr 3LiRhO 6 +6 RhF 6 The common of rhodium is +3, but oxidation states from +0 to +6 are also observed. Unlike and, rhodium forms no volatile oxygen compounds.

The known stable oxides include,, RhO 2 xH 2O, Na 2RhO 3, Sr 3LiRhO 6 and Sr 3NaRhO 6. Halogen compounds are known in nearly the full range of possible oxidation states., rhodium(IV) fluoride, rhodium(V) fluoride and are examples. The lower oxidation states are stable only in the presence of ligands. The best-known rhodium-halogen compound is the chlorotris(triphenylphosphine)rhodium(I). This catalyst is used in the or of. Isotopes [ ]. Main article: Naturally occurring rhodium is composed of only one, 103Rh.

The most stable are 101Rh with a of 3.3 years, 102Rh with a of 207 days, 102mRh with a of 2.9 years, and 99Rh with a half-life of 16.1 days. Twenty other radioisotopes have been characterized with ranging from 92.926 ( 93Rh) to 116.925 u ( 117Rh). Most of these have half-lives shorter than an hour, except 100Rh (20.8 hours) and 105Rh (35.36 hours). It has numerous, the most stable being 102mRh (0.141 MeV) with a half-life of about 2.9 years and 101mRh (0.157 MeV) with a half-life of 4.34 days (see ).

In isotopes weighing less than 103 (the stable isotope), the primary is and the primary is In isotopes greater than 103, the primary decay mode is and the primary product is. Occurrence [ ] Rhodium is one of the, comprising an estimated 0.0002 (2 × 10 −10). Its rarity affects its price and its use in commercial applications. Mining and price [ ]. Rh price evolution. The industrial extraction of rhodium is complex because the ores are mixed with other metals such as,,, and and there are very few rhodium-bearing.

It is found in platinum ores and extracted as a white inert metal that is difficult to fuse. Principal sources are located in South Africa; in river sands of the; and in North America, including the - mining area of the,, region. Although the quantity at Sudbury is very small, the large amount of processed nickel ore makes rhodium recovery cost-effective. The main exporter of rhodium is South Africa (approximately 80% in 2010) followed by Russia.

The annual world production is 30. The price of rhodium is highly variable.

In 2007, rhodium cost approximately eight times more than gold, 450 times more than silver, and 27,250 times more than copper by weight. In 2008, the price briefly rose above $10,000 per ounce ($350,000 per kilogram).

The economic slowdown of the 3rd quarter of 2008 pushed rhodium prices sharply back below $1,000 per ounce ($35,000 per kilogram); the price rebounded to $2,750 by early 2010 ($97,000 per kilogram) (more than twice the gold price), but in late 2013, the prices were less than $1000. Political and financial problems [ ] led to very low oil prices and oversupply, causing most metals to drop in price. The economies of China, India and other emerging countries slowed in 2014 and 2015. In 2014 alone, 23,722,890 motor vehicles were produced in China, excluding motorbikes. [ ] This resulted in a rhodium price of 740.00 US-$ per (31.1 grams) in late November 2015. Used nuclear fuels [ ]. Main article: Rhodium is a fission product of; therefore, each kilogram of fission product contains a significant amount of the lighter platinum group metals including rhodium.

Is a potential source of rhodium. However, the extraction is complex and expensive, and the presence of rhodium radioisotopes requires a period of cooling storage for multiple half-lives of the longest-lived isotope (about 10 years). These factors make the source unattractive and no large-scale extraction has been attempted.

Applications [ ] The primary use of this element is in automobiles as a, changing harmful unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxide exhaust emissions into less noxious gases. Of 30,000 kg of rhodium consumed worldwide in 2012, 81% (24,300 kg) went into and 8,060 kg was recovered from this application. About 964 kg of rhodium was used in the glass industry, mostly for production of fiberglass and flat-panel glass, and 2,520 kg was used in the chemical industry. Catalyst [ ] In 2012, 81% of the world production of rhodium was consumed in automobile catalytic converters. Rhodium is preferable to the other platinum metals in the of to and: 2 NO x → x O 2 + N 2 Rhodium are used in a number of industrial processes, notably in catalytic carbonylation of to produce by the. It is also used to catalyze addition of hydrosilanes to molecular, a process important in manufacture of certain silicone rubbers.

Rhodium catalysts are also used to reduce to. The complex of a rhodium ion with is a widely used chiral catalyst for, as in the synthesis of. Ornamental uses [ ] Rhodium finds use in and for decorations. It is on and platinum to give it a reflective white surface at time of sale, after which the thin layer wears away with use. This is known as rhodium flashing in the jewelry business. It may also be used in coating to protect against tarnish (, Ag 2S, produced from atmospheric hydrogen sulfide, H 2S).

Solid (pure) rhodium jewelry is very rare, more because of the difficulty of fabrication (high melting point and poor malleability) than because of the high price. The high cost ensures that rhodium is applied only as an. Rhodium has also been used for honors or to signify elite status, when more commonly used metals such as silver, gold or platinum were deemed insufficient.

In 1979 the gave a rhodium-plated disc for being history's all-time best-selling songwriter and recording artist. Other uses [ ] Rhodium is used as an alloying agent for hardening and improving the corrosion resistance of and. These alloys are used in furnace windings, bushings for glass fiber production, elements, for aircraft, and laboratory crucibles. Other uses include: •, where it is valued for small, small and stable, and great resistance. • Rhodium plated by either or evaporation is extremely hard and useful for optical instruments. • Filters in systems for the characteristic X-rays it produces.

• Rhodium neutron detectors are used in nuclear reactors to measure neutron flux levels – this method requires a digital filter to determine the current neutron flux level, generating three separate signals: immediate, a few seconds delay, and a minute delay, each with its own signal level; all three are combined in the rhodium detector signal. The three nuclear reactors each have 305 rhodium neutron detectors, 61 detectors on each of five vertical levels, providing an accurate 3D 'picture' of reactivity and allowing fine tuning to consume the nuclear fuel most economically. Rhodium foil and wire Precautions [ ] Being a, pure rhodium is inert. However, chemical complexes of rhodium can be reactive. (LD 50) for rats is 198 mg of rhodium chloride ( RhCl 3) per kilogram of body weight. Like the other noble metals, all of which are too inert to occur as chemical compounds in nature, rhodium has not been found to serve any biological function.

In elemental form, the metal is harmless. People can be exposed to rhodium in the workplace by inhalation. The (OSHA) has specified the legal limit () for rhodium exposure in the workplace at 0.1 mg/m 3 over an 8-hour workday, and the (NIOSH) has set the (REL), at the same level. At levels of 100 mg/m 3, rhodium is. For soluble compounds, the PEL and REL are both 0.001 mg/m 3. See also [ ] • • References [ ]. Virus Visual Basic 2010 on this page.